Definition of Septuagint: Meaning and History

The Septuagint is an ancient Greek translation of Jewish Scriptures, especially the Hebrew Bible, produced over several centuries before and around the time of Jesus.

The name is commonly abbreviated LXX, the Roman numeral for 70. It comes from the traditional account that approximately 70 or 72 Jewish translators independently produced identical translations of the Torah in Alexandria. The story helped give the translation authority, although historians view the actual development of the Septuagint as more gradual and complex.

What the word Septuagint means

The word Septuagint comes from the Latin phrase versio septuaginta interpretum, meaning “translation of the seventy interpreters.” The Greek title is often represented by the letters Οʹ, and English-language scholars commonly use LXX as a short form.

In its broadest sense, the Septuagint refers to the Greek translations of Jewish sacred writings that originated before the New Testament period. In a narrower sense, the word can refer specifically to the Greek translation of the Torah, or the first five books of the Bible. The meaning depends on the context in which a writer uses the term.

The Septuagint is not a single translation completed by one person at one time. Different books were translated by different people, in different settings, and with varying degrees of closeness to the Hebrew text. Some books use relatively literal Greek, while others reflect more interpretive or stylistic translation choices.

Why Jewish Scriptures were translated into Greek

Greek became widely used throughout the eastern Mediterranean after the conquests associated with Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE. In places such as Alexandria, Egypt, many Jews spoke Greek more comfortably than Hebrew or Aramaic. A Greek translation allowed Jewish communities to read their Scriptures in the language of everyday life.

This language shift did not necessarily mean that Hebrew had lost religious importance. Hebrew remained central to Jewish worship and study, but multilingual communities often needed access to sacred texts in Greek. The Septuagint therefore developed as part of a broader cultural and linguistic setting rather than as an isolated religious project.

The earliest known stage of the translation was probably the Pentateuch, the five books traditionally attributed to Moses. Later translators rendered additional books, including historical works, wisdom literature, and prophetic writings. The process may have continued for generations, with different translators following different methods.

The Greek-speaking Jewish population was not limited to Egypt. Greek translations could serve Jewish communities across the eastern Mediterranean, particularly those whose daily language was Greek. Over time, these translations became part of the textual environment in which both Jewish and Christian readers encountered biblical ideas.

What the traditional story says about the 70 translators

The main ancient account appears in the Letter of Aristeas, a Jewish work that presents a story about the translation of the Torah in Alexandria. According to the account, the king of Egypt requested a Greek copy of the Jewish law, and leaders in Jerusalem sent translators from the twelve tribes of Israel.

The story describes 72 translators, commonly understood as six from each tribe. Later tradition rounded the number to 70, which explains the title Septuagint. In the story, the translators worked separately and produced matching versions, a result presented as evidence of divine guidance.

Scholars do not generally treat every detail of this story as a straightforward historical report. The number of translators, the setting, and the claim of complete agreement may serve theological or literary purposes. The account still provides valuable evidence that ancient Jewish communities regarded the Greek translation as significant and wanted to explain its authority.

The traditional story also explains why the abbreviation LXX became so common. Although “70” is simpler than “72,” both numbers appear in discussions of the Septuagint’s origin. The title refers to the tradition surrounding the translation, not to a certainty that exactly 70 people produced every Greek biblical book.

How the Septuagint developed across different books

The Septuagint should be understood as a collection of translations rather than a uniform edition. The Greek of Genesis may differ in style from the Greek of Isaiah, Psalms, or Proverbs because each book had its own translator, source text, and historical setting.

Some translators followed the structure of the Hebrew text closely, sometimes producing Greek that sounds unusual or reflects Hebrew word order. Others communicated the meaning more freely in natural Greek. These differences can affect how a passage reads and how later readers interpret its grammar, imagery, or emphasis.

The source texts also varied. The Hebrew manuscripts available to ancient translators were not necessarily identical to the medieval Hebrew manuscripts that later became the basis for the standard Masoretic Text. In some places, the Septuagint may preserve evidence of a Hebrew reading that differs from the later textual tradition.

That does not mean that every difference proves the Septuagint is older or more accurate. A difference may come from a translator’s interpretation, paraphrase, mistake, deliberate adjustment, or a Hebrew manuscript variant. Each passage requires careful comparison rather than a general assumption about which language is superior.

Which books are included in the Septuagint

The contents associated with the Septuagint vary according to manuscript tradition and religious community. The Greek collection includes translations of books found in the Hebrew Bible, along with some Jewish writings that are not part of the Jewish biblical canon.

Among the works commonly associated with the broader Septuagint collection are:

• The Pentateuch: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
• Historical books: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, the books of Samuel, the books of Kings, and Chronicles, although titles and divisions can differ.
• Poetic and wisdom writings: Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job, and other related books.
• Prophetic books: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets.
• Additional Jewish writings: books such as Tobit, Judith, 1 and 2 Maccabees, Wisdom of Solomon, and Sirach, depending on the collection being discussed.

Some books contain notable additions or expanded sections in Greek. Examples include additions associated with Esther and Daniel. The Greek versions of Jeremiah and Job are also significantly different in length or arrangement from their counterparts in the traditional Hebrew text.

Because the contents differ by manuscript and tradition, the phrase “the Septuagint canon” can be misleading. The Septuagint was not necessarily created as one fixed table of contents. Modern editions may distinguish translated biblical books, later revisions, and other Greek Jewish writings included in particular Christian traditions.

How the Septuagint differs from the Hebrew Bible

The most obvious difference is language: the Septuagint is in ancient Greek, while the Hebrew Bible is primarily in Hebrew, with some Aramaic passages. Translation naturally introduces differences in vocabulary, sentence structure, idioms, and interpretation.

Some differences are small. A Hebrew word may have several possible Greek equivalents, and a translator must choose one based on context. A phrase that works naturally in Hebrew may require a longer expression in Greek. Names may also be spelled differently because they were adapted to Greek pronunciation and grammar.

Other differences are more substantial. A Greek translator may read a Hebrew word differently, work from a different manuscript, or explain an ambiguous phrase through interpretation. In certain books, the order of chapters or sections also differs from the arrangement familiar in most modern English Bibles.

One well-known example involves Isaiah 7:14. The Greek Septuagint uses a Greek term that can mean a young woman and is often understood in Christian tradition as “virgin,” while the Hebrew wording has a different range of meaning. The passage illustrates how translation choices can influence later theological interpretation without reducing the issue to a simple error.

Another example appears in Psalm numbering. Hebrew-based Bibles and Greek-based Bibles sometimes assign different numbers to the same psalm because of differences in how psalms are combined or divided. Readers comparing references should check the numbering system being used.

Why the Septuagint matters for the New Testament

The Septuagint was the major Greek version of Jewish Scripture available to many early Christians. Since the New Testament was written in Greek, its authors and earliest readers often encountered biblical passages through Greek wording. This helps explain why New Testament quotations sometimes differ from the wording found in modern English translations based mainly on Hebrew manuscripts.

New Testament writers frequently refer to the Jewish Scriptures when explaining Jesus, the church, salvation, covenant, worship, and ethical teaching. Some quotations closely resemble the Septuagint, while others appear to reflect the Hebrew text, an independent Greek translation, memory, or a combination of sources.

The wording of the Septuagint can also shape the vocabulary of the New Testament. Terms such as Messiah, Christ, Lord, and gospel carry histories that become clearer when Greek Jewish Scripture and New Testament usage are read together.

This connection is especially significant in passages that Christians interpret as referring to Jesus. The Gospel of Matthew, for example, sometimes follows Greek scriptural wording when presenting an event as connected with prophecy. The presence of Septuagint-like wording does not settle every interpretive question, but it shows which scriptural form may have influenced the writer.

The Septuagint also helps explain why early Christian writers could quote Scripture confidently even when their wording differs from the Hebrew text used in many modern Bibles. They were working within a multilingual world where Greek Scripture was a recognized and influential textual resource.

How Jewish and Christian communities use the Septuagint

The Septuagint began as a Jewish translation for Greek-speaking Jews. It should not be described as a Christian creation. Christian communities later adopted and transmitted it, especially because Greek was the main language of the early church throughout much of the Mediterranean world.

In many Eastern Orthodox churches, Greek biblical texts and traditions connected with the Septuagint remain especially important. Several Orthodox Old Testament editions include books and passages that are arranged differently from Protestant Bibles. Roman Catholic and other Christian traditions also preserve books associated with the wider Greek collection, though their editions and terminology may differ.

Modern Jewish communities generally do not use the Septuagint as their primary scriptural text. Even so, Jewish scholars study it because it preserves evidence about ancient Jewish interpretation, language, and textual transmission. The translation can reveal how Greek-speaking Jews understood difficult Hebrew expressions many centuries ago.

The Septuagint therefore belongs to the history of both Jewish textual tradition and Christian biblical tradition. Treating it as exclusively Christian obscures its Jewish origin, while treating it as identical to the Hebrew Bible overlooks its distinctive history and later reception.

How scholars use the Septuagint today

Biblical scholars use the Septuagint for several related purposes. It can help reconstruct the history of the biblical text, study ancient translation methods, analyze the development of Jewish interpretation, and understand the wording of New Testament quotations.

When a Greek passage differs from the Hebrew text, researchers compare multiple forms of evidence. They may examine Hebrew manuscripts, Greek manuscripts, ancient translations into other languages, quotations by early writers, and the vocabulary or grammar of the passage itself.

The Septuagint is particularly valuable in textual criticism. Textual criticism does not mean attacking the Bible. It is the disciplined study of manuscript variations to determine what readings may be earliest or to describe how a text changed as it was copied and translated.

A Greek translator can preserve a Hebrew reading that no longer survives in later Hebrew manuscripts. However, the translator can also obscure the original by paraphrasing or misunderstanding it. Scholars therefore ask whether a Greek wording reflects a different Hebrew source or simply the translator’s method.

The Septuagint is also a major source for studying ancient Greek. Its language is shaped by Hebrew idioms and religious vocabulary, so it does not always read like other Greek literature from the same period. Comparing its phrasing with contemporary Greek helps researchers understand how Jewish translators adapted sacred concepts for a new linguistic audience.

Practical tips for reading and researching the Septuagint

Readers can avoid confusion by identifying which Greek text, book, and numbering system a source is using. The term Septuagint may refer to a specific translation, a broader collection, or a critical edition that records multiple manuscript readings.

• Check the book and chapter: Some books have different names, arrangements, or chapter divisions in Greek and Hebrew traditions.
• Compare more than one translation: An English Bible based on the Hebrew text may not represent the Septuagint wording.
• Look for textual notes: Study Bibles often identify places where Greek and Hebrew traditions differ.
• Distinguish translation from manuscript evidence: A Greek variation may reflect a translator’s interpretation rather than a different Hebrew original.
• Use the right psalm numbering: A reference to Psalm 50 in one tradition may correspond to Psalm 51 in another.
• Check the edition’s contents: Additional books and passages vary among Jewish, Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, and academic editions.

Common mistakes when defining the Septuagint

Several common statements are too simple to be reliable. Correcting them leads to a clearer understanding of what the Septuagint is and how it functions.

• Mistake: calling it one complete translation made at one time. The translations were produced over an extended period by different translators.
• Mistake: saying every book was translated by exactly 70 people. The number comes from an origin tradition and does not describe the production of every book.
• Mistake: treating the Septuagint as merely a Greek copy of the Masoretic Text. It can reflect different Hebrew readings, translation choices, and arrangements.
• Mistake: assuming every Greek difference is a scribal error. Many differences arise from normal translation decisions or ancient textual variation.
• Mistake: describing it as originally Christian. The project began within Greek-speaking Jewish communities before Christianity.
• Mistake: assuming all Christian churches use the same Septuagint collection. Biblical contents and terminology vary among traditions.

What the Septuagint reveals about ancient interpretation

A translation is more than a set of replacement words. It records how a translator understood the source text, which meanings seemed most important, and how the message could be expressed for a particular audience. The Septuagint therefore provides evidence of ancient Jewish interpretation.

For example, a translator may clarify a metaphor, choose a more specific word, or make an implicit relationship explicit. These choices can show how certain Hebrew expressions were understood in the centuries before and around the time of the New Testament.

The Greek translation also reveals how Jewish communities adapted biblical language to a Hellenistic environment. Concepts rooted in Hebrew Scripture were expressed through Greek vocabulary while retaining distinctive Jewish meanings. This makes the Septuagint useful for studying the meeting of languages, cultures, and religious traditions.

At the same time, readers should avoid treating one translator’s decision as a complete explanation of Jewish belief. A translation reflects an individual book, period, audience, and textual setting. It is valuable evidence, but it must be read alongside other ancient sources.

Why the Septuagint remains important

The Septuagint remains important because it connects several stages of biblical history. It shows how Jewish Scripture moved into the Greek-speaking world, helps explain the language of the early church, and preserves readings that sometimes differ from later Hebrew traditions.

For Bible readers, it can clarify why quotations in the New Testament do not always match an English Old Testament. For historians, it offers evidence about Jewish life and translation in the Hellenistic period. For textual scholars, it provides an independent witness that can be compared with Hebrew manuscripts and other ancient versions.

The most accurate definition is therefore both simple and qualified: the Septuagint is the ancient Greek translation tradition of Jewish Scriptures, begun with the Torah and expanded through the work of different translators. Its history includes the traditional story of the seventy translators, but its actual formation was a long and varied process.

Frequently asked questions

Is the Septuagint the same as the Old Testament?

The Septuagint is a Greek form of Jewish Scripture, while “Old Testament” can refer to the Christian collection in various languages and arrangements. Many Old Testament books appear in the Septuagint, but the order, wording, contents, and additional passages may differ among Jewish, Protestant, Catholic, Orthodox, and academic editions.

Why is the Septuagint called LXX?

LXX is the Roman numeral for 70. The abbreviation comes from the ancient tradition that 70 or 72 Jewish translators produced the Greek translation of the Torah. Although the historical development was more complicated, LXX became the standard scholarly abbreviation for the Septuagint and related Greek biblical texts.

Did Jesus read the Septuagint?

Jesus lived in a multilingual environment where Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek were used in different settings. The New Testament often quotes Jewish Scripture in wording that resembles the Septuagint, showing that Greek Scripture influenced early Christian communities. The available evidence does not establish that Jesus used only one language or one fixed edition.

Is the Septuagint more accurate than the Hebrew Bible?

Neither can be declared universally superior. The Septuagint sometimes preserves an ancient Hebrew reading that differs from later Hebrew manuscripts, but it also contains interpretive translations and possible misunderstandings. Scholars compare both traditions passage by passage, using manuscript evidence, language, context, and other ancient witnesses.